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Y-chromosomal samples of the Himalayan "Language and Genes" project
Topic Started: Dec 5 2017, 03:50:36 PM (156 Views)
black man
The Right Hand
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JCA
Dec 5 2017, 01:25:41 PM
I should have mentioned here that bhu-1560 from Bhutan also belongs to haplogroup O-M1283 (cf. Hallast et al. 2014).
Thanks. Very interesting.

AFAIK, the samples of Hallast et al. 2014 were already mentioned by Parkin et al. in their paper "26-Locus Y-STR typing in a Bhutanese population sample". And they write:
Quote:
 
Sampling of 856 Bhutanese males was undertaken as part of a larger collaborative project [3] examining genetic diversity in populations of the Himalayas within the context of their extraordinary degree of linguistic diversity [4]. (...) The samples represent 19 distinct ethnolinguistic groups, all speaking Tibeto–Burman languages, and widely distributed throughout Bhutan.


One of the linguists of the project they mention is van Driem, whose "father tongue" hypothesis I already mentioned. Unfortunately, they didn't publish as much as one might have hoped they'd do.
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Ebizur
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I also have checked the data file of Hallast et al. 2014 and confirmed the phylogenetic positions of the Bhutanese individuals whose Y-DNA has been analyzed in that study.

Bhu-1000 belongs to C2b1a2a-M86/M77. It is interesting that at least one member of this clade has been found in such a southerly area as Bhutan because it has been estimated to have a very recent TMRCA (approximately 4,000 [95% CI 3,200 <-> 4,800] ybp according to YFull YTree v5.08) and it appears to have spread primarily from the watershed of the Amur River. Perhaps this Bhutanese individual might be descended in the paternal line from a Mongol or Manchu invader or governor of Greater Tibet.

Bhu-1606 belongs to C2c1a2a1-F3797/Z2201.2. The current version of YFull does not provide a TMRCA estimate for C2c1a2a1-F3797/Z2201.2, but it does indicate that this clade includes id:HG03917 from Bangladesh and id:NA18620 from the CHB (Han Chinese in Beijing) sample. According to YFull, this clade shares a MRCA with C2c1a2a2-F12250 approximately 8,700 [95% CI 7,300 <-> 10,200] ybp. C2c1a2a2-F12250 has been found in people from China (including one individual who has reported an origin in Shandong) and Japan (Saga Prefecture). YFull has estimated the TMRCA of two Chinese members of C2c1a2a2-F12250 to be approximately 4,900 [95% CI 3,800 <-> 6,200] ybp.

Bhu-1561 and bhu-1150 are downstream of D1a2a-P47, exhibiting many SNPs that currently are considered to be phylogenetically equivalent to D1a2a1-M533. However, the MRCA of bhu-1561 and bhu-1150 appears to be quite ancient. This might be taken as evidence in support of a hypothesis of an origin of D1a2a1-M533 on the Tibetan Plateau. (D1a2a1-M533 is the subclade of D1a2a-P47 that also has been found in Mongols in Mongolia, an individual in the Autonomous Republic of Crimea, an individual in East Kazakhstan Region, an individual who is probably of recent Hungarian extraction, and an individual in Romania who is probably of recent "Tatar" ancestry. The diffusion of a branch of this clade into Turko-Mongols and thence into eastern Europe appears to be very recent, probably within the first millennium CE or later.)

Bhu-0957 belongs to D1a1a1a1a2-F729 (D-F1192 on YFull). This is a subclade of D1a1a1-N1 that also has been found in an individual in Japan, an individual in Kazakhstan, an individual somewhere in the Russian Federation, and YCH25 (a Han in Shandong).

Bhu-1164 belongs to E1b1b1b2a1a1a1a1f1a-S9747. This clade should fall alongside an individual from the Yemeni Hadramaut and an individual from
Cagliari, Sardinia in E-Y5435* (xY5412) on YFull: formed 7,200 [95% CI 6,400 <-> 8,000] ybp, TMRCA 6,100 [95% CI 5,100 <-> 7,200] ybp.
It is a subclade of E-M84, a typically Semitic branch of Y-DNA haplogroup E1b1b1.

Bhu-1151 belongs to H-Y2585(xApt)/H-SK1208(xApt), or H1a2-Z5867(xH1a2a-Apt) on the ISOGG tree. Nep-0809, a member of the nearest outgroup in the dendrogram of Hallast et al. 2014, belongs to H1a2a-Apt.

Bhu-1611 belongs to L-L1307(xL-Y6259), or L1a2-M357(xL1a2b1-Y6259)/L1a2-L1307(xL1a2b1-Y6259) on the ISOGG tree. It is more closely related to the Y-DNA of tur-18, which belongs to L1a2b1-Y6256 (L-Y11220 on the YFull tree), than it is related to the Y-DNA of nep-0387, which belongs to L-Z5930 (L1a1b3-Z5930 on the ISOGG tree). The Bhutanese individual and the Turkish individual belong to a subclade of haplogroup L that probably is more common in southern Central Asia and Southwest Asia than it is in India proper, whereas the Nepalese individual belongs to a subclade that is very common in India proper, while also having been found in several Arabs and in two Sardinians.

Bhu-1892 belongs to haplogroup T-M184(xL490, CTS5987), or T*-M184(xT1-CTS5987) on the ISOGG tree. YFull currently lists one individual (id:YF03586) with a reported Armenian origin who shares such a phylogenetic position.

As I have mentioned previously, bhu-1560 belongs to haplogroup O-M1283, which is in all likelihood the predominant clade of Y-DNA among extant speakers of Munda languages.

Bhu-1609 belongs to O2a1c1a1a1b-FGC1803.2/Y2044.2. This is a rare member of O2a1c1-F18(xO2a1c1a1a1a-F11/F60, O2a1c1a2-F449, O2a1c1b-CTS498). It is just slightly basal to O-F11/F60, the major descendant lineage of O2a1c-JST002611. Its TMRCA with O-F11/F60 should be somewhere between 8,200 and 14,500 ybp.

Bhu-1554 belongs to O2a2b1a1a6a-CTS5308. This subclade of O-M117 includes an individual in Japan, an individual in the CHB sample of Han in
Beijing, an individual in Tripura, and an individual in the CDX sample of Dai in Xishuangbanna with a TMRCA of 5,400 [95% CI 4,200 <-> 6,700] ybp
according to YFull YTree v5.08. Members of this clade and its close phylogenetic relatives in O2a2b1a1a6-CTS1642 (TMRCA 6,200 [95% CI 5,400 <-> 7,000] ybp) seem to have become extremely common in the gene pools of some Tibeto-Burman-speaking populations in Northeast India and its vicinity.

Bhu-1142 and bhu-1586 belong to two fairly distinct subclades of N1b2-M1819, the former exhibiting at least 18 SNPs and the latter exhibiting at least 11 SNPs downstream of their MRCA. YFull has estimated a TMRCA of 6,600 [95% CI 5,600 <-> 7,700] ybp for the N1b2-M1819 clade, represented by nine members from China (including one member of the CHB sample) plus an individual in Japan, an individual in Arunachal Pradesh, and an individual in Ho Chi Minh City. A member of the N1b2-M1786 clade also has been found in Cambodia.

Bhu-1582 belongs to a subclade of N1a1a1a1a4-M2019/M2068 slightly distinct from that to which tur-15 from Turkey belongs: tur-15 exhibits at least 12 SNPs and bhu-1582 exhibits at least 6 SNPs downstream of their MRCA in N1a1a1a1a4-M2019/M2068. YFull has estimated a TMRCA of 3,800 [95% CI 3,000 <-> 4,600] ybp for the N-M2019 clade, with a basal member in Estonia and two commonly observed subclades, one of which is known for its high frequency in Yakutia and the other of which has been found in people in China, Turkey, Lebanon, Croatia, and Hungary.

Bhu-1564 and bhu-1813 are closely related in the paternal line (only two SNPs each downstream of their MRCA according to Hallast et al. 2014), so the utility of including both of them in the subset of the Bhutanese sample that the authors have selected for analysis is questionable. Both belong to Q1a1a1-F875, the most widely observed subclade of haplogroup Q1a1a-M120. All members of Q-M120 on YFull YTree v5.08 belong to Q-Y515/F875 except id:HG01944, an unusual example of Q-M120*(xY515) from Peru. (This may be interpreted to suggest that the lineage of id:HG01944 is either an almost extinct lineage of a member of the founding population of indigenous Americans or a pre-Columbian migrant from an ancient population of Asia that in the meanwhile has not prospered in its homeland.) Anyway, the lineage of these two Bhutanese adds to the evidence that Q-M120 has a broad (though thin) distribution among speakers of Sino-Tibetan languages.

Bhu-1157 belongs to R2a2b1b2-FGC18148/V3714, the major South Asian subclade of R2a. On YFull, this subclade of R2a has many representatives from various parts of South Asia and Arabia. There are also three members from Italy (two fairly closely related individuals from Cagliari, Sardinia and one from Avellino, Campania), two members from Iraq, and one member from Norfolk, England. YFull YTree v5.08 estimates for R-V3714/FGC18148: formed 9,100 [95% CI 8,000 <-> 10,400] ybp, TMRCA 8,700 [95% CI 7,900 <-> 9,500] ybp. Its nearest outgroups are not so overwhelmingly South Asian in membership, with many representatives on YFull who have claimed origins in Arabia, Iraq, and Syria.

Bhu-0956 belongs to R-Y2633: formed 3,700 [95% CI 2,900 <-> 4,600] ybp, TMRCA 3,500 [95% CI 2,700 <-> 4,400] ybp according to YFull YTree v5.08. YFull currently lists a basal member from Qatar in R-Y2633*(xY2634), a Tu (Monguor or "White Mongol") from China who belongs to the R-YP5716 subclade under R-Y2634, an individual from Pakistani Punjab who belongs to R-Y16006*(xYP6321) under R-Y2634, an individual from Kuwait and an individual of undeclared origin who belong to the R-YP6321 subclade, and an individual from Iraq who belongs to R-Y2633 but whose phylogenetic position has not been resolved any further than that. R-Y2633 is a subclade of R1a1a1b2a2a-Z2123 (formed 4,100 [95% CI 3,800 <-> 4,500] ybp, TMRCA 4,000 [95% CI 3,500 <-> 4,600] ybp), whose membership appears to be concentrated in southern and western Asia, but which also has an extremely broad distribution from westernmost Europe (and its recent colonies) to China.

Bhu-0984 belongs to R1b1b2-SK2058/SK2060. This very rare subclade of haplogroup R1b includes two members from Turkey (one is from Konya and the other is of known Armenian ethnicity from Aintab/Antep/Gaziantep) and two members from Bahrain (these two individuals have a very recent common ancestor) besides this Bhutanese individual. The TMRCA of the lineage of the individual from Konya and the lineage of the two individuals from Bahrain is estimated by YFull to be 5,800 [95% CI 4,500 <-> 7,100] ybp. The TMRCA of R1b1b-PH155, which subsumes R1b1b1-M335 (found in an individual in Turkey, an individual in Ladakh, a Hui individual in Yunnan, an individual with genealogically recorded origin in Italy, and an individual with genealogically recorded origin in Germany) and R1b1b2-SK2058, is estimated to be 7,300 [95% CI 6,100 <-> 8,700] ybp. The TMRCA of R1b1-L278 is estimated to be 18,900 [95% CI 16,900 <-> 20,900] ybp.

Bhu-1953 belongs to R-CTS8966/CTS7763. This is a subclade of R-Z2103, the "Yamna clade." Members of R-Z2103 also have been found among modern people of the Volga-Ural region, but among extant populations, the clade is characterized by its predominance among Armenians. The R-CTS8966/CTS7763 subclade also appears to be primarily Armenian in ethnic origin, with known members from Armenia, Turkey, Saudi Arabia, Bulgaria, Iran, Chechnya, Scotland, Italy (Cagliari, Sardinia), and China (Beijing) besides this Bhutanese individual. The TMRCA of R-CTS8966 is 4,600 [95% CI 3,900 <-> 5,400] ybp according to YFull. The Chinese individual (id:NA18645 from the CHB sample of Han Chinese in Beijing) belongs to R-CTS347*(xY37188), whose TMRCA with two individuals from Chechnya who belong to R-Y37188 is estimated to be 3,700 [95% CI 2,700 <-> 4,900] ybp. It should be interesting to see whether bhu-1953 from Bhutan is more closely related to NA18645 from Beijing than either of those individuals is related to the individuals from Chechnya, or whether the Bhutanese individual and the Han Chinese individual are descended from two different ancestors who have migrated separately from somewhere between the Volga-Ural region and Greater Armenia, one to the Himalaya and one to North China.
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black man
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JCA
Dec 6 2017, 08:09:22 AM
(...)

Bhu-1000 belongs to C2b1a2a-M86/M77. It is interesting that at least one member of this clade has been found in such a southerly area as Bhutan because it has been estimated to have a very recent TMRCA (approximately 4,000 [95% CI 3,200 <-> 4,800] ybp according to YFull YTree v5.08) and it appears to have spread primarily from the watershed of the Amur River. Perhaps this Bhutanese individual might be descended in the paternal line from a Mongol or Manchu invader or governor of Greater Tibet.

(...)

Bhu-1164 belongs to E1b1b1b2a1a1a1a1f1a-S9747. This clade should fall alongside an individual from the Yemeni Hadramaut and an individual from
Cagliari, Sardinia in E-Y5435* (xY5412) on YFull: formed 7,200 [95% CI 6,400 <-> 8,000] ybp, TMRCA 6,100 [95% CI 5,100 <-> 7,200] ybp.
It is a subclade of E-M84, a typically Semitic branch of Y-DNA haplogroup E1b1b1.

(...)

Bhu-1611 belongs to L-L1307(xL-Y6259), or L1a2-M357(xL1a2b1-Y6259)/L1a2-L1307(xL1a2b1-Y6259) on the ISOGG tree. It is more closely related to the Y-DNA of tur-18, which belongs to L1a2b1-Y6256 (L-Y11220 on the YFull tree), than it is related to the Y-DNA of nep-0387, which belongs to L-Z5930 (L1a1b3-Z5930 on the ISOGG tree). The Bhutanese individual and the Turkish individual belong to a subclade of haplogroup L that probably is more common in southern Central Asia and Southwest Asia than it is in India proper, whereas the Nepalese individual belongs to a subclade that is very common in India proper, while also having been found in several Arabs and in two Sardinians.

Bhu-1892 belongs to haplogroup T-M184(xL490, CTS5987), or T*-M184(xT1-CTS5987) on the ISOGG tree. YFull currently lists one individual (id:YF03586) with a reported Armenian origin who shares such a phylogenetic position.
This IMO confirms my previous impression that they tend to choose the most unusual samples they can find. So the y hg profiles of sub-samples within hg trees are heavily skewed, I think. Nevertheless, it's also interesting that such samples can already make one doubt that countries like Bhutan would be extremely isolated.

E.g., I'd say that the presence of these particular hg E sample is in accordance with the proximity of the Bay of Bengal and the maritime trade routes people used to get there from, e.g., coastal West Asia. Then again, ethnicity or other background information of the individual could possibly contradict the idea of a predominately maritime migration route.
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Ebizur
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black man
Dec 7 2017, 02:29:09 PM
This IMO confirms my previous impression that they tend to choose the most unusual samples they can find. So the y hg profiles of sub-samples within hg trees are heavily skewed, I think. Nevertheless, it's also interesting that such samples can already make one doubt that countries like Bhutan would be extremely isolated.

E.g., I'd say that the presence of these particular hg E sample is in accordance with the proximity of the Bay of Bengal and the maritime trade routes people used to get there from, e.g., coastal West Asia. Then again, ethnicity or other background information of the individual could possibly contradict the idea of a predominately maritime migration route.
I've also got the same impression, which is why I have not calculated a percentage for each haplogroup among members of the subset (n=21) of the Bhutanese sample analyzed by Hallast et al. 2014.

In regard to the haplogroup E individual, please recall that Fornarino et al. 2009 have reported finding E1b1b1-M35(xE1b1b1a1-M78) Y-DNA in 3/37 = 8.1% of a sample of Tharu from Morang District of southeastern Nepal, which is geographically quite close to Bhutan. The fact that those three individuals' Y-DNA has been excluded from belonging to E-M78 makes it impossible for them to be descended from a member of a certain recently expanded subclade of E that is found fairly regularly among extant Europeans; a connection with recent speakers of an Afroasiatic language is more likely.
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black man
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JCA
Dec 7 2017, 03:02:29 PM
In regard to the haplogroup E individual, please recall that Fornarino et al. 2009 have reported finding E1b1b1-M35(xE1b1b1a1-M78) Y-DNA in 3/37 = 8.1% of a sample of Tharu from Morang District of southeastern Nepal, which is geographically quite close to Bhutan. The fact that those three individuals' Y-DNA has been excluded from belonging to E-M78 makes it impossible for them to be descended from a member of a certain recently expanded subclade of E that is found fairly regularly among extant Europeans; a connection with recent speakers of an Afroasiatic language is more likely.
Great idea, JCA.

I just posted my old (probably incomplete) notes on the genetic backgrounds of Tharuic-speakers. Apparently, Morang Tharus assimilated people whose ancestors belonged to the sphere of influence of the Koch rulers of pre-colonial northern Bengal. These apparently relatively recently Tharu-ised people are not unlikely to have mainstream Bengali rather than Tibeto-Burman backgrounds. I.e., Bengali y chromosomes could be of interest in this context as well.
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Ebizur
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As for the Bhutanese members of Y-DNA haplogroup R, the lineages of the members of R2a and R1a appear to be fairly run-of-the-mill for South Asians, so Indic/Aryan patrilineal ancestry may be likely for these individuals. Tangentially, I note that probable Indo-Iranian genetic influence seems to extend at least as far as the Mongolic-speaking Tu people in China.

On the other hand, the Bhutanese members of R1b are quite interesting. One belongs to a subclade of the most basal known branch of R1b; the subclade found in this Bhutanese individual also has been found in individuals from Turkey (including one individual of known Armenian ethnic origin from southeastern Anatolia) and Bahrain. That subclade is estimated to share a MRCA with R1b1b1-M335, which has been found in an individual in Turkey, an individual in Ladakh, a Hui individual in Yunnan, an individual with genealogically recorded origin in Italy, and an individual with genealogically recorded origin in Germany, about 7,300 [95% CI 6,100 <-> 8,700] ybp.

The other Bhutanese member of R1b belongs to "Yamna modal type" or "Armenian modal type" R1b, as does the lineage of the R1b individual in the CHB (Han Chinese in Beijing, China) sample.
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black man
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Dec 9 2017, 02:47:50 AM
As for the Bhutanese members of Y-DNA haplogroup R, the lineages of the members of R2a and R1a appear to be fairly run-of-the-mill for South Asians, so Indic/Aryan patrilineal ancestry may be likely for these individuals. Tangentially, I note that probable Indo-Iranian genetic influence seems to extend at least as far as the Mongolic-speaking Tu people in China.

On the other hand, the Bhutanese members of R1b are quite interesting. One belongs to a subclade of the most basal known branch of R1b; the subclade found in this Bhutanese individual also has been found in individuals from Turkey (including one individual of known Armenian ethnic origin from southeastern Anatolia) and Bahrain. That subclade is estimated to share a MRCA with R1b1b1-M335, which has been found in an individual in Turkey, an individual in Ladakh, a Hui individual in Yunnan, an individual with genealogically recorded origin in Italy, and an individual with genealogically recorded origin in Germany, about 7,300 [95% CI 6,100 <-> 8,700] ybp.

The other Bhutanese member of R1b belongs to "Yamna modal type" or "Armenian modal type" R1b, as does the lineage of the R1b individual in the CHB (Han Chinese in Beijing, China) sample.
So the labels starting with "Bhu" might only imply the country from the which the samples are. And the people whose genomes they examined could be descendants of immigrants from northern Bengal and Nepal.

Usually, I'm not particularly interested in studies on WEA genetic backgrounds. But the case of the sphere of influence of the Koch rulers I mentioned above is different. In that particular region mainstream South Asians interacted with people of eastern Asian backgrounds. And the presence of genetically more WEA people indicates the possibility of the former presence of trade routes about which people rarely ever mention anything in the context of ethnological studies.

So far, mainstream ethnographies on that particular region have been dominated by colonial and post-colonial racist attitudes which are reflected by some authors still portraying the region and its aborigines as "primitive" and others trying to refute this within the context of Eurocentric trains of thought. And one result of that seems to be that some speakers of northern Bengali claim to be "Aryan", whereas others claim to have "Koch" backgrounds with Brahmaputran-speakers having been within the sphere of influence of the Koch rulers as well. That said, people who live there can naturally have different kinds of backgrounds even when researchers consider them to be within the same category.
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Ebizur
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Dec 6 2017, 08:09:22 AM
Bhu-1582 belongs to a subclade of N1a1a1a1a4-M2019/M2068 slightly distinct from that to which tur-15 from Turkey belongs: tur-15 exhibits at least 12 SNPs and bhu-1582 exhibits at least 6 SNPs downstream of their MRCA in N1a1a1a1a4-M2019/M2068. YFull has estimated a TMRCA of 3,800 [95% CI 3,000 <-> 4,600] ybp for the N-M2019 clade, with a basal member in Estonia and two commonly observed subclades, one of which is known for its high frequency in Yakutia and the other of which has been found in people in China, Turkey, Lebanon, Croatia, and Hungary.


Anne-Mai Ilumae et al. have mentioned this individual's Y-DNA in "Human Y Chromosome Haplogroup N: A Non-trivial Time-Resolved Phylogeography that Cuts across Language Families" (The American Journal of Human Genetics 99, 163–173, July 7, 2016):
Quote:
 
Previous research has shown that Y chromosomes of the Turkic-speaking Yakuts (Sakha) belong overwhelmingly to hg N3 (formerly N1c1). We found that nearly all of the more than 150 genotyped Yakut N3 Y chromosomes belong to the N3a2-M2118 clade, just as in the Turkic-speaking Dolgans and the linguistically distant Tungusic-speaking Evenks and Evens living in Yakutia (Table S2). Hence, the N3a2 patrilineage is a prime example of a male population of broad central Siberian ancestry that is not intrinsic to any linguistically defined group of people. Moreover, the deepest branch of hg N3a2 is represented by a Lebanese and a Chinese sample. This finding agrees with the sequence data from Hallast et al., where one Turkish Y chromosome was also assigned to the same sub-clade. Interestingly, N3a2 was also found in one Bhutan individual who represents a separate sub-lineage in the clade. These findings show that although N3a2 reflects a recent strong founder effect primarily in central Siberia (Yakutia, Sakha) (Figure 3), the sub-clade has a much wider distribution area with incidental occurrences in the Near East and South Asia.
In their Table S5, they have provided a TMRCA estimate for this clade, which they have labeled "N3a2": 4,490 [95% CI 3,409 <-> 5,575] ybp. According to their data set, a Chinese member of N-B509 (Chinese9455, also known as GRC12129455) and a Lebanese member of N-B182 (GS000017169-ASM) comprise a clade, N-B508, that is a sister clade to the Yakutian N-M1982, which subsumes N-M1932 (observed in an Even) and N-M1979 (observed in three Yakuts). The confidence intervals for the TMRCA estimates of YFull and Ilumae et al. overlap to a great extent, but the YFull estimate is relatively low as usual.

I infer from the comments of Ilumae et al. ("[T]he deepest branch of hg N3a2 is represented by a Lebanese and a Chinese sample. This finding agrees with the sequence data from Hallast et al., where one Turkish Y chromosome was also assigned to the same sub-clade") that tur-15 of the data set of Hallast et al. (2014) should belong to N-B508 like GRC12129455 from China and GS000017169-ASM from Lebanon. This must be equivalent to N-A9408 on the YFull tree because the Y-DNA of GRC12129455 has been tabulated on the YFull tree as belonging to N-A9408*. Since Ilumae et al. have shown on their Figure S2 that GRC12129455 belongs to N-B509 whereas GS000017169-ASM belongs to a sister clade, N-B182, and yet they have described these samples as representing "the deepest branch of hg N3a2" and also mentioned that "one Turkish Y chromosome [from the data set of Hallast et al.] was also assigned to the same sub-clade," I presume that their comment regarding the Y-DNA of bhu-1582 from Bhutan ("Interestingly, N3a2 was also found in one Bhutan individual who represents a separate sub-lineage in the clade") should be interpreted to mean that the lineage of bhu-1582 belongs to a third branch of N1a1a1a1a4-M2118 alongside Chinese/Turkish/Lebanese/Croatian/Hungarian N1a1a1a1a4a2-A9408 and Yakutian N1a1a1a1a4a1-M1982. I hope they will clarify this in a subsequent paper.

Since N1a2b2a1c-L665 now has been found in a Gansu Tibetan as well as in YF01503 from Western Finland Province, I suspect that bhu-1582 may turn out to belong to N1a1a1a1a4*-M2118(xN1a1a1a1a4a-M2058) like YF02733 from Western County of Estonia.
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